Chemical Vapor Deposition Approach Research Articles

Deformed graphene FET biosensor on textured glass coupled with dielectrophoretic trapping for ultrasensitive detection of GFAP

Numerous efforts have been undertaken to mitigate the Debye screening effect of FET biosensors for achieving higher sensitivity. There are few reports that show sub-femtomolar detection of biomolecules by FET mechanisms but they either suffer from significant background noise or lack robust control. In this aspect, deformed/crumpled graphene has been recently deployed by other researchers for various biomolecule detection like DNA, COVID-19 spike proteins and immunity markers like IL-6 at sub-femtomolar levels. However, the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach for graphene fabrication suffers from various surface contamination while the transfer process induces structural defects. In this paper, an alternative fabrication methodology has been proposed where glass substrate has been initially texturized by wet chemical etching through the sacrificial layer of synthesized silver nanoparticles, obtained by annealing of thin silver films leading to solid state dewetting. Graphene has been subsequently deposited by thermal reduction technique from graphene oxide solution. The resulting deformed graphene structure exhibits higher sensor response towards glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) detection with respect to flat graphene owing to the combined effect of reduced Debye screening and higher surface area for receptor immobilization. Additionally, another interesting aspect of the reported work lies in the biomolecule capture by dielectrophoretic (DEP) transport on the crests of the convex surfaces of graphene in a coplanar gated topology structure which has resulted in 10 aM and 28 aM detection limits of GFAP in buffer and undiluted plasma respectively, within 15 min of application of analyte. The detection limit in buffer is almost four decades lower than that documented for GFAP using biosensors which is is expected to pave way for advancing graphene FET based sensors towards ultrasensitive point-of-care diagnosis of GFAP, a biomarker for traumatic brain injury.

Red–Green–Blue Light Emission from Composition Tunable Semiconductor Micro‐Tripods

AbstractMicro/nanoscale lasers that span the entire visible spectrum, especially those in red, green, and blue colors, are not only essential for a variety of optical devices but also have important applications in visible color communication, multi‐color fluorescence sensing, and wavelength division multiplexing. Despite the great efforts made to achieve multi‐color lasing using a variety of approaches, on‐chip white light emission and even red, green, and blue multi‐color lasers still suffer from considerable challenges in micro‐nano structures. Here, CdSxSe1−x, CdS, and ZnS micro‐tripod structures are successfully prepared using chemical vapor deposition approaches. The micro‐photoluminescence (µ‐PL) spectra and PL‐mapping of these micro‐tripods reveal various emissions at 630, 508, and 460 nm, respectively. Additionally, white‐light emissions based on these composition‐tunable tripods are realized through an end‐coupling structure system. Moreover, room‐temperature modes tunable lasers are observed clearly from three legs of these micro‐tripods, with a low threshold of ≈48.39 µJ cm−2 and a high quality factor of 1227.3. The realization of micro‐tripods‐based lasers may provide an innovative way for highly integrated photonic circuits and communications.

Oxygen Driven Defect Engineering of Monolayer MoS2 for Tunable Electronic, Optoelectronic, and Electrochemical Devices

AbstractMolybdenum disulfide (MoS2), a two‐dimensional (2D) semiconducting material harbors intrinsic defects that can be harnessed to achieve tuneable electronic, optoelectronic, and electrochemical devices. However, achieving precise control over defect formation within monolayer MoS2, remains a notable challenge. Here, an in‐situ defect engineering approach for monolayer MoS2 using a pressure‐dependent chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process is presented. Monolayer MoS2 grown in a low pressure CVD conditions (LP‐MoS2) produces sulfur vacancy (Vs) induced defect‐rich crystals primarily attributed to the oxygen‐deficient growth conditions. Conversely, atmospheric pressure CVD‐grown MoS2 (AP‐MoS2) passivates these defects with oxygen from ambient conditions. This disparity in defect profiles profoundly impacts crucial functional properties and device performance.  AP‐MoS2 shows a drastically enhanced photoluminescence, which is significantly quenched in LP‐MoS2 attributed to in‐gap electron donor states induced by the Vs defects. However, the n‐doping induced in LP‐MoS2 generates enhanced photoresponsivity and detectivity in fabricated photodetectors compared to the AP‐MoS2‐based devices. Defect‐rich LP‐MoS2 outperforms AP‐MoS2 as channel layers of field‐effect transistors (FETs), as well as electrocatalytic material for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). This work presents a single‐step CVD approach for in situ defect engineering in monolayer MoS2 and presents a pathway to control defects in other monolayer 2D materials.

Phase and Composition Engineering of Self-Intercalated 2D Metallic Tantalum Sulfide for Second-Harmonic Generation.

Self-intercalation in two-dimensional (2D) materials is significant, as it offers a versatile approach to modify material properties, enabling the creation of interesting functional materials, which is essential in advancing applications across various fields. Here, we define ic-2D materials as covalently bonded compounds that result from the self-intercalation of a metal into layered 2D compounds. However, precisely growing ic-2D materials with controllable phases and self-intercalation concentrations to fully exploit the applications in the ic-2D family remains a great challenge. Herein, we demonstrated the controlled synthesis of self-intercalated H-phase and T-phase Ta1+xS2 via a temperature-driven chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach with a viable intercalation concentration spanning from 10% to 58%. Atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy-annular dark field imaging demonstrated that the self-intercalated Ta atoms occupy the octahedral vacancies located at the van der Waals gap. The nonperiodic Ta atoms break the centrosymmetry structure and Fermi surface properties of intrinsic TaS2. Therefore, ic-2D T-phase Ta1+xS2 consistently exhibit a spontaneous nonlinear optical (NLO) effect regardless of the sample thickness and self-intercalation concentrations. Our results propose an approach to activate the NLO response of centrosymmetric 2D materials, achieving the modulation of a wide range of optoelectronic properties via nonperiodic self-intercalation in the ic-2D family.

Controlled Growth of Submillimeter-Scale Cr5Te8 Nanosheets and the Domain Wall Nucleation Governed Magnetization Reversal Process.

Two-dimensional (2D) ferromagnets have attracted widespread attention for promising applications in compact spintronic devices. However, the controlled synthesis of high-quality, large-sized, and ultrathin 2D magnets via facile, economical method remains challenging. Herein, we develop a hydrogen-tailored chemical vapor deposition approach to fabricating 2D Cr5Te8 ferromagnetic nanosheets. Interestingly, the time period of introducing hydrogen was found to be crucial for controlling the lateral size, and a Cr5Te8 single-crystalline nanosheet of lateral size up to ∼360 μm with single-unit-cell thickness has been obtained. These samples exhibit a leading role of domain wall nucleation in governing the magnetization reversal process, providing important references for optimizing the performances of associated devices. The nanosheets also show notable magnetotransport response, including nonmonotonous magnetic-field-dependent magnetoresistance and sizable anomalous Hall resistivity, demonstrating Cr5Te8 as a promising material for constructing high-performance magnetoelectronic devices. This study presents a breakthrough of large-sized CVD-grown 2D magnetic materials, which is indispensable for constructing 2D spintronic devices.

Prediction of Zn2(V, Nb, Ta)N3 Monolayers for Optoelectronic Applications.

A new family of ternary nitride materials, Zn2(V, Nb, Ta)N3 monolayers, is predicted. A fabrication mechanism of the Zn2(V, Nb, Ta)N3 monolayers is proposed based on the chemical vapor deposition approach used for their bulk counterparts. The calculations show that these monolayers are thermodynamically and environmentally stable and that the Zn2VN3 monolayer is the most stable and the easiest to synthesize. The Zn2VN3 monolayer also has the highest strength and elasticity. The Zn2(V, Nb, Ta)N3 monolayers are semiconductors with nearly equal direct and indirect band gaps. Considering optoelectronic properties, the predicted monolayers are transparent to the visible light and provide shielding in the ultraviolet region. Thus, the predicted Zn2(V, Nb, Ta)N3 monolayers are promising for applications in LED devices and as blocking layers in tandem solar cells.

Solutions Are the Problem: Ordered Two-Dimensional Covalent Organic Framework Films by Chemical Vapor Deposition.

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are a promising class of crystalline polymer networks that are useful due to their high porosity, versatile functionality, and tunable architecture. Conventional solution-based methods of producing COFs are marred by slow reactions that produce powders that are difficult to process into adaptable form factors for functional applications, and there is a need for facile and fast synthesis techniques for making crystalline and ordered covalent organic framework (COF) thin films. In this work, we report a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach utilizing co-evaporation of two monomers onto a heated substrate to produce highly crystalline, defect-free COF films and coatings with hydrazone, imine, and ketoenamine COF linkages. This all-in-one synthesis technique produces highly crystalline, 40 nm-1 μm-thick COF films on Si/SiO2 substrates in less than 30 min. Crystallinity and alignment were proven by using a combination of grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and successful conversion of the monomers to produce the target COF was supported by Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and UV-vis measurements. Additionally, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate the growth mechanisms of these films, showing the coalescence of triangular crystallites into a smooth film. To show the wide applicability and scope of the CVD process, we also prepared crystalline ordered COF films with imine and ketoenamine linkages. These films show potential as high-quality size exclusion membranes, catalytic platforms, and organic transistors.

Toward Edge Engineering of Two-Dimensional Layered Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides by Chemical Vapor Deposition.

The manipulation of edge configurations and structures in atomically-thin transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) for versatile functionalization has attracted intensive interest in recent years. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach has shown promise for TMD edge engineering of atomic edge configurations (1H, 1T or 1T'-zigzag or armchair edges) as well as diverse edge morphologies (1D nanoribbons, 2D dendrites, 3D spirals, etc.). These edge-rich TMD layers offer versatile candidates for probing the physical and chemical properties and exploring potential applications in electronics, optoelectronics, catalysis, sensing, and quantum technologies. In this Review, we present an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the manipulation of TMD atomic edges and edge-rich structures using CVD. We highlight the vast range of distinct properties associated with these edge configurations and structures and provide insights into the opportunities afforded by such edge-functionalized crystals. The objective of this Review is to motivate further research and development efforts to use CVD as a scalable approach to harness the benefits of such crystal-edge engineering.

Recent Understanding in the Chemical Vapor Deposition of Multilayer Graphene: Controlling Uniformity, Thickness, and Stacking Configuration.

Multilayer graphene has attracted significant attention because its physical properties can be tuned by stacking its layers in a particular configuration. To apply the intriguing properties of multilayer graphene in various optoelectronic or spintronic devices, it is essential to develop a synthetic method that enables the control of the stacking configuration. This review article presents the recent progress in the synthesis of multilayer graphene by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). First, we discuss the CVD of multilayer graphene, utilizing the precipitation or segregation of carbon atoms from metal catalysts with high carbon solubility. Subsequently, we present novel CVD approaches to yield uniform and thickness-controlled multilayer graphene, which goes beyond the conventional precipitation or segregation methods. Finally, we introduce the latest studies on the control of stacking configurations in bilayer graphene during CVD processes.

A Porous Wrinkled Graphitic Carbon as Corrosion‐Resistant Carbon Support for Durable Fuel‐Cell Catalysts

AbstractThe lifespan of proton‐exchange membrane fuel cells heavily relies on the durability of the carbon support of cathode catalysts. However, commercial carbon supports like ketjenblack (KB) and Vulcan carbon (VC) face the challenge of balancing porosity, surface area, and electrochemical stability. To address this issue, a 3D porous wrinkled graphitic carbon (PWGC) is designed and synthesized using a catalyst‐free, plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition approach. The resulting PWGC possesses a hierarchically porous structure with a high surface area, a high degree of graphitization, and exceptional corrosion resistance. As a result, the Pt/PWGC catalysts with the use of PWGC as the carbon support demonstrate superior high potential stability compared to those made with KB and VC as the carbon support. Additionally, a sacrificial layer strategy is introduced to further reduce PWGC corrosion, resulting in Pt@C/PWGC catalysts that show significantly improved durability in membrane electrode assembly tests. After 5K voltage cycles from 1.0 to 1.5 V, the retention of electrochemically active surface area approaches 56.8%, surpassing the 23.6% retention of commercial Pt/C catalysts tested under the same conditions.

Layer-selective growth of 2D hexagonal boron nitride using two-step chemical vapor deposition

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) has recently become a promising and popular material due to its wide applications, such as deep ultraviolet optoelectronic devices, novel nonvolatile memory technology, room temperature quantum emitter, and dielectric in devices based on two-dimensional (2D) materials. However, realizing uniform h-BN thin films thicker than monolayer remains a major challenge, which is important in both fundamental and practical studies. In this work, we report the selective growth of large-area bilayer h-BN using a two-step chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach. Through constructing a confined space in the Cu foils/sapphire stack, controlled synthesis of bilayer h-BN is achieved. Systematic characterization verified the formation of bilayer h-BN and the mechanism of CVD growth is also studied. We find that the in situ annealing between the two steps could efficiently facilitate the selective growth, and the local oxidation and reduction process could create preferred nucleation sites for uniform bilayer h-BN. Our results could enrich the understanding of the synthesis mechanism and lay the foundation for controllable synthesis of high-quality h-BN.

Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition Approach to the Synthesis of Perovskite BaCeO3 and BaCe0.8Y0.2O3 Thin Films.

In the present energetic scenario, the development of materials with high potentiality in the technological fields of energy conversion processes, production and storage of hydrogen, are of great interest in the scientific community. In particular, we report for the first time the fabrication of crystalline and homogeneous barium-cerate-based materials in the form of thin films on various substrates. Starting from the β-diketonate precursor sources Ce(hfa)3diglyme, Ba(hfa)2tetraglyme and Y(hfa)3diglyme (Hhfa = 1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoroacetylacetone; diglyme = bis(2-methoxyethyl)ether; tetraglyme = 2,5,8,11,14-pentaoxapentadecane), a metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) approach has been successfully applied to the fabrication of BaCeO3 and doped BaCe0.8Y0.2O3 systems in the form of thin films. Structural, morphological and compositional analyses allowed for an accurate determination of the properties of deposited layers. The present approach represents a simple, easily scalable, and industrially appealing process for the production of compact and homogeneous barium cerate thin films.

Room-Temperature Magnetism in 2D MnGa4 -H Induced by Hydrogen Insertion.

2D room-temperature magnetic materials are of great importance in future spintronic devices while only very few are reported. Herein, a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition approach is exploited to construct the 2D room-temperature magnetic MnGa4 -H single crystal with a thickness down to 2.2nm. The employment of H2 plasma makes hydrogen atoms can be easily inserted into the MnGa4 lattice to modulate the atomic distance and charge state, thereby ferrimagnetism can be achieved without destroying the structural configuration. The as-obtained 2D MnGa4 -H crystal is high-quality, air-stable, and thermo-stable, demonstrating robust and stable room-temperature magnetism with a high Curie temperature above 620K. This work enriches the 2D room-temperature magnetic family and opens up the possibility for the development of spintronic devices based on 2D magnetic alloys.

Type-II Bi2O2Se/MoTe2 van der Waals Heterostructure Photodetectors with High Gate-Modulation Photovoltaic Performance.

In recent years, two-dimensional (2D) nonlayered Bi2O2Se-based electronics and optoelectronics have drawn enormous attention owing to their high electron mobility, facile synthetic process, stability to the atmosphere, and moderate narrow band gaps. However, 2D Bi2O2Se-based photodetectors typically present large dark current, relatively slow response speed, and persistent photoconductivity effect, limiting further improvement in fast-response imaging sensors and low-consumption broadband detection. Herein, a Bi2O2Se/2H-MoTe2 van der Waals (vdWs) heterostructure obtained from the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach and vertical stacking is reported. The proposed type-II staggered band alignment desirable for suppression of dark current and separation of photoinduced carriers is confirmed by density functional theory (DFT) calculations, accompanied by strong interlayer coupling and efficient built-in potential at the junction. Consequently, a stable visible (405 nm) to near-infrared (1310 nm) response capability, a self-driven prominent responsivity (R) of 1.24 A·W-1, and a high specific detectivity (D*) of 3.73 × 1011 Jones under 405 nm are achieved. In particular, R, D*, fill factor, and photoelectrical conversion efficiency (PCE) can be enhanced to 4.96 A·W-1, 3.84 × 1012 Jones, 0.52, and 7.21% at Vg = -60 V through a large band offset originated from the n+-p junction. It is suggested that the present vdWs heterostructure is a promising candidate for logical integrated circuits, image sensors, and low-power consumption detection.

Ultraslim and highly flexible supercapacitor based on chemical vapor deposited nitrogen-doped bernal graphene for wearable electronics

Nitrogen-doped Bernal graphene has several advantages, including improved electrical conductivity, enhanced stability and better compatibility with electrolytes. This article presents the synthesis of few-layer pristine graphene and nitrogen-doped Bernal graphene (CVDNG) through the Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition approach and its application for flexible supercapacitors. A novel hot lamination-assisted approach is employed to transfer the graphene on the desired substrates, enabling the reusability of copper. Raman mapping is utilized to analyze the characteristic bands and statistical distribution of Bernal stacking in CVDNG. The doping in graphene is confirmed through the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy suggesting the content of pyrrolic-N (73.38%), pyridinic-N (20.28%) and graphitic-N (6.38%) in the CVDNG. Cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge-discharge and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are performed by sandwiching the polyvinyl alcohol-sodium perchlorate based hydrogel membrane between two symmetrical supercapacitor electrodes. CVDNG symmetrical supercapacitor device delivers an enhanced areal capacitance of 26.75 mF cm−2 with a high energy density of 2.14 mWh cm−2 with a power density of 72 mW cm−2 at 0.05 mA cm−2. The device shows excellent flexibility by retaining 91.1% of its capacitance at extreme bending (180° angle) conditions and excellent specific capacitance retention (90.6%) after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles.

In Situ Synthesis of ZIF-67 Thin Films Using Low Temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition to Fabricate All-Solid-State Flexible Interdigital in-Planar Microsupercapacitors

This work describes the fabrication of a flexible all-solid-state interdigital in-planar microsupercapacitor (μSC) using the in situ synthesized ZIF-67 thin films as the interdigital finger-electrode materials, platinum (Pt) thin film as the interdigital finger-electrode current collector, laser print technology for the fabrication of interdigital patterns, and low-cost commercial polyethylene terephthalate (PET) sheet as the flexible substrates, assembled with the NaOH/PVA gel electrolyte. ZIF-67 thin films are in situ synthesized onto PET substrate by ultralow temperature (ULT) chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technology at a low temperature of 140°C. We herein report the ULT CVD approach for gas phase synthesizing ZIF-67 thin films, the exactly heating temperature can produce vaporized water steam, sublimated 2-methylimidazole (2-MIM) and cobalt(II) acetylacetonate (Co(acac)2) vapors at the same time. The vaporized and sublimated gaseous precursors demonstrated molecular-level reactions, including the deprotonation of 2-MIM via water steam, and the following coordinated reactions with cobalt ions decomposed from Co(acac)2, for the efficiently straightforward deposition to form the uniform ZIF-67 thin films onto the substrate surface. Herein, the integration of pattern printing, CVD depositing ZIF-67 thin films, and lift-off patterning processes demonstrated a comprehensive achievement and good compatibility to integrate MOFs into miniaturized energy-storage devices.

Combined HF+MW CVD Approach for the Growth of Polycrystalline Diamond Films with Reduced Bow

A combination of two methods of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of diamond films, microwave plasma–assisted (MW CVD) and hot filament (HF CVD), was used for the growth of 100 µm-thick polycrystalline diamond (PCD) layers on Si substrates. The bow of HF CVD and MW CVD films showed opposite convex\concave trends; thus, the combined material allowed reducing the overall bow by a factor of 2–3. Using MW CVD for the growth of the initial 25 µm-thick PCD layer allowed achieving much higher thermal conductivity of the combined 110 µm-thick film at 210 W/m·K in comparison to 130 W/m·K for the 93 µm-thick pure HF CVD film.

CVD Approach to a Single Gallium Oxide Nanowire for Solar-blind UV Detector

Aims: Finding a simple, energy-saving and low-cost synthesis method to process gallium oxide nanowires by CVD for solar-blind detector. Background: Due to a bandgap of 4.5 ~ 4.9 eV and a high breakdown field strength of 8 MV/cm, gallium oxide (Ga2O3) has great application prospects in solar blind ultraviolet detection and highpower devices. Notably, Ga2O3 NWs are currently the key research objects of solar-blind UV detection materials because of the characteristics of efficient photocarrier separation and collection, and the bandgap width perfectly matches the energy of deep ultraviolet photons. Objective: To find a simple method to synthesize Ga2O3 nanowire with smooth surface and uniform diameter, and the prepared single gallium oxide nanowire UV detector has high photoelectric conversion efficiency. Methods: Ga2O3 NWs are prepared on the SiO2/Si substrate by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach at low reaction temperature with gold particles serving as the catalyst and gallium arsenide (GaAs) as a gallium source. Results: X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy characterization indicate the crystal structure of NWs is β-Ga2O3, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) characterization proves that the NWs have a uniform diameter and smooth surface. Moreover, the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) characterization shows that the material had high crystal quality. Moreover, the photoconductive solar-blind UV detector with a single Ga2O3 NW is prepared, showing the excellent performance of the high responsivity and external quantum efficiency. Conclusion: The effects of growth temperature and the size of gold catalyst on the morphology of β-Ga2O3 NWs have been investigated. The results show that with the reaction temperature is 625 °C and the diameter of Au catalyst is about 30~50 nm, it is more conducive to the formation of NMs with crystal structure, smooth surface and uniform diameter. The performance of the solar-blind UV photodetector shows that the device has higher sensitivity (R = 149.82 A/W), external quantum efficiency (EQE = 73206%), and response rate τrise = 0.66 s, and τdown = 0.45 s.

Graphene Nanofoam Based Nanomaterials: Manufacturing and Technical Prospects

This article fundamentally reviews progress in the design and manufacturing of three-dimensional (3D) graphene-based nanocomposites for technical applications. The 3D graphene nanostructures have been manufactured using techniques like the template method, chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel, freeze-drying, hydrothermal technique, and other approaches. The nanofoam has been reinforced in polymers to achieve superior structural, morphological, and physical characteristics of the ensuing polymer/graphene nanofoam nanocomposites. The polymer/graphene nanofoam nanocomposites have been manufactured using the approaches like direct template method, in situ technique, infiltration process, and other methods. The 3D nanofoam- and polymer-based nanostructures have shown high specific surface area, suppleness, electron transport, thermal conduction, mechanical resilience, and other physical properties. The technical applications of hierarchical graphene nanofoams have been observed in the fields of radiation shielding, solar cells, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and other applications.

Lateral WSe2 Homojunction through Metal Contact Doping: Excellent Self‐powered Photovoltaic Photodetector

AbstractHere an IR‐heating chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach enabling fast 2D‐growth of WSe2 thin films is reported, and the great potential of metal contact doping in building CVD‐grown WSe2‐based lateral homojunction is demonstrated by contacting with TiN/Ni metals in favor of holes/electrons injection. Shortening nanosheet channel to ≈2 µm leads to pronounced enhancement in the performance of diode. The fabricated WSe2‐based diode exhibits high rectification ratios without the need of gate modulation and can work efficiently as photovoltaic cell, with maximum open circuit voltage reaching up to 620 mV and a high power conversion efficiency over 15%, empowering it as superb self‐powered photodetector for visible to near‐infrared lights, with photoresponsivity over 0.5 A W−1 and a fast photoresponse speed of 10 µs under 520 nm illumination. It is of practical significance to achieve well‐performed photovoltaic devices with CVD‐grown WSe2 using fab‐friendly metals and simple processing, which will help pave the way toward future mass production of optoelectronic chips.